Just to set the record straight, we must tell you that Microsoft Windows comes with plenty of free applications. The most widely used freebie is Internet Explorer. To find most of the others go to Start, All Programs, Accessories, and start clicking. Why don’t you take a look right now? Outside of Internet Explorer how many free Windows applications do you actually use? When you feel like word processing do you fire up Notepad, Word Pad, or Microsoft Word? Guess which two of these word processors are free.

Equipping an office with the standard Windows applications is an expensive activity. Some Microsoft applications make you purchase the software itself and then pay additional licensing fees when you connect your Microsoft client computer to a Microsoft server computer.

Damn Small Linux applications are free. Some of them are included with the initial download while others have to be downloaded and installed subsequently. There are several reasons for this seemingly intricate procedure. Not everybody wants to use the same applications. Furthermore, the very strict selection of the applications in its base package helps the Damn Small Linux distribution to respect the hard to believe 50 Megabyte limit. Once you have installed Damn Small Linux you can download Open Source (free) versions of Office and run them under Linux. Please note that you can download and run these programs under Microsoft Windows as well.

All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. Well Jack doesn’t have to worry if he’s running Damn Small Linux. It comes with lots of free games. Somehow we have the impresssion that you will not need any tutorials to get the games running.

Some Linux applications are not only free but are actually superior when compared to the corresponding Windows applications. For example, have you ever heard of an e-mail client called Sylpheed? This application is part of the basic Damn Small Linux distribution. It has several advantages over those extremely popular (perhaps we should say unpopular) Microsoft e-mail offerings, Outlook and Outlook Express. Sylpheed handles spam much better than do its Windows counterparts. And Sypheed allows you to process threads of e-mail messages. For example, you correspond with several people about wholesale wine purchases. Sypheed makes it easy to process those messages while ignoring unrelated ones.

Since we’re talking about email, what about it’s cousin the Internet? That will be the subject of our next article in this series.

Linux and Windows share many characteristics. For example, most people have little interest in knowing how they work. These operating systems make the computer available for the applications that people want to apply; such as running an Internet server, browsing the Internet, creating and accessing data bases, writing programs, playing music, or, or, or. These tasks are coordinated by the operating system and require specialized programs that drive hardware efficiently and correctly. We’ll talk about Linux’s closely integrated “friends” and compare them to the similar but oh so different Microsoft offerings.

The Linux group is called LAMP, an acronym standing for Linux, Apache, MySql, and PHP. There is no similar Microsoft acronym for their set of interacting products. Could that be a symptom of their relatively low level of integration? In contrast Linux is closely integrated with the other LAMP components. In a sense these companions grew up together. Improvements to one component are easily transmitted to the others. These programs are all Open Source meaning that the actual code for all components is readily available. When a problem such as a security breach occurs (don’t let anybody tell you there are no security breaches in Linux and friends) people work on the problem and may post corrections rapidly. Now let’s look at the other LAMP components.

Apache is a highly regarded web server. It has been the most popular web server on the Internet since April, 1996. Believe me, if Microsoft with its virtually unlimited resources cannot dislodge Apache from the top of the pack this software must be doing a lot of things right. Of the four LAMP components Apache is the one that non-specialists are least likely to try to learn. But if you want to play with it, guess how much it costs. You can download a version which will run under Windows but it is unlikely to contain the full functionality. At the time of this writing the Windows version of Apache has some problems concerning its cryptographic functions. Apache is undergoing constant development; its new features, security enhancements, and bug fixes will be available first on the Open Source (LAMP) version. And then filter down to the Windows version.

MySQL is the most popular Open Source Database Management System. The MySQL Community Server is free. The more powerful MySQL Enterprise Server starts at $595 per server per year, a very reasonable price for a commercial product. Microsoft’s competitive database management system is Microsoft SQL Server. Licensing of this software is fairly complicated and believe me, costs a lot, lot more than does MySQL Enterprise Server. Microsoft often makes you pay for purchasing the server and client software and then pay annual server licenses and client licenses for system access.

MySQL runs on a wide range of hardware in conjunction with various operating systems. You can guess from its name that Microsoft SQL Server runs only under Windows. Both of these database management products are constantly upgraded and many technical features that once were available only on SQL Server now run on MySQL. In the past SQL Server clearly surpassed MySQL for enterprise-level systems, while itself often losing out to Oracle or other database management systems. Today’s reality is more complicated and MySQL Enterprise Server manages many huge database systems.

Talking about size, we didn’t finish discussing LAMP components in this article. PHP is the subject of the next one in this series.

And here is our technology history lesson for today. In spite of what you may think, Bill Gates and Microsoft did not invent the Internet. In fact, these visionaries jumped aboard the information highway fairly late after vainly trying to counterpose their own MSN to the Internet.

In contrast Unix computers have been accessing the Internet and what’s more running the Internet for decades. Unix and the Internet have had plenty of time to evolve together. Of course you can access the Internet from Windows with Internet Explorer, Firefox, and numerous other browsers. Many sites do use Windows-based Internet servers. Whether you are a casual Internet user or an Internet Service Provider you probably want to know the concrete differences for you and your associates to help choosing between Linux and Windows for meeting your Internet needs. (Actually Internet Service Providers tend to know the differences and have made their choice, which is usually Linux. In the interest of fairness I must tell you that their choice is definitely not Damn Small Linux ‘ it’s just too small.) Let’s examine some important differences between Linux and Windows in respect to the Internet.

Linux browsers are much less likely to stall than their Windows competitors. This increased stability reduces those annoying Internet browser restarts and even more annoying operating system restarts. This latter advantage is particularly important for Internet Service Providers but is also important for individual Internet users.

The Linux Internet experience is much less likely to be interrupted by Adware, in which intruders foist their junk on unwilling victims. As far as I’m concerned Adware is theft of my time and energy. In spite of their claims I have a sneaking suspicion that I’m not the 10 millionth visitor to their site and even if I were there is no way that I won any free vacation to Las Vegas or Never-Never Land. Linux systems clearly surpass Windows when it comes to blocking these criminals and letting me do my Internet work or have my Internet fun.

I don’t want anybody snooping around my stuff, whether on the computer or not. Spyware is often a major problem with Internet browsers that run on Windows computers. Linux systems are more resistant to Spyware than their Windows competitors. But in the interest of fairness I want to refute those silly claims that Linux computers are completely resistant to Adware, Spyware, hacking, viruses and the like. Whatever some people can build, others can tear down or worm their way in.

This brings up our next subject, computer viruses. Do you think you can guess which operating system is better equipped to combat this major problem?

Unlike Windows, Linux users must have an account. This account is accorded permissions such as reading and writing files and executing programs. Accounts are combined into groups to simplify their management. Users who are members of a given group may be assigned additional permissions that smooth the process of accessing common files. Let’s take a closer look at how Linux handles these users. A future article examines permissions and groups.

Linux provides two categories of users, ordinary users essentially restricted to working with files of their own creation, and the superuser, or root, who administers the system and is allowed to do almost anything. The real situation is of course somewhat more complex. For example, ordinary users may be accorded restricted access to additional files deemed to be of interest to everyone. The superuser can assign some privileges to deputies reducing an otherwise crushing workload.

The root user is the only one authorized to run the adduser or the more complicated useradd command. If you have downloaded Damn Small Linux you can test these commands on your Windows computer. In response to the adduser command Linux requests the user name, the password, and then a few optional fields that may be skipped. An organization with many users has or should have a policy for composing user names.

The password is a key element in protecting the computer’s security. We could easily write an article discussing the password and password selection. Remember that Linux distinguishes between lower-case and upper-case letters. If you’re new to computing you may try working with easily remembered passwords at first. But protecting your account and account information depends on your unguessable passwords.

When Linux creates your account it also creates a directory whose name is easy to remember. If your account name is lucy then your working directory is /home/lucy . I’m leaving it up to you to find out the location of lucy’s working directory for Windows systems.

Damn Small Linux shares an interesting feature with many other Linux systems. The system administrator can provide new users with copies of some directories and folders by placing them in the /etc/skel directory before launching the adduser command.

How is the system administrator supposed to handle creating dozens, hundreds, or even thousands of new users, for example at the beginning of the semester? He or she won’t have the time to undertake this backbreaking task. And there is no way that the root password should be revealed to the employee who is assigned this task. The answer is simple: write a program to create these new accounts. This program can even spiff up the account creation interface and perhaps grab some necessary information from sources such as the student registration file.

Of course we don’t want to create users without the possibility of removing them. The live process is fairly complicated and includes removing the user’s password from the /etc/passwd directory, removing all files from the user directory, and other activities such as making backups of essential information. The next article discusses the related concepts of permissions and groups.

A shell is the command interpreter program that serves as an interface between some users and the operating system itself. We say some users because most users rely on the graphical user interface. The Windows shell is the DOS command line interface accessed by clicking on Run and then entering the cmd command. The Windows graphical user interface is Explorer. This article describes the Damn Small Linux shell interface and several utilities, useful programs that may be launched from the shell. A subsequent article will describe the corresponding graphical user interface.
Why would anyone want to bother with a shell when the prettier, easier-to-learn and easier-to-use graphical interface is available? The answer is: It depends who you are and what you want to do. For system administrators or their associates it’s often much less cumbersome to use the shell rather than the graphical user interface. While Damn Small Linux commands may be quite arcane, they can be very powerful. And efficient. The Linux tools for performing administrative and other technical tasks admittedly take time to learn and master. But it does the job and does it well. In all fairness, many Windows systems administrators often apply command-line utilities. But they don’t have a powerful shell to help them do their work.
Historically Unix used the Bourne shell, the C shell based on the C programming language, and the Korn shell. Linux’s most widely used shell is Bash, also spelled BASH, the (Bourne-Again Shell). Damn Small Linux offers many shells but most people go with Bash both to communicate interactively with the operating system and to write programs known as shell scripts. If you program in Linux no matter which programming language you use you should learn some Bash specifics.
Utilities enable you to handle some very sophisticated processing. You can think of them as commands or as prewritten programs. Unix-Linux people often send the output of one command or utility to another command or utility for further processing. For example, the ps command displays active processes. It tends to generate voluminous output, especially in a busy system. Let’s say that you are interested only in the processes associated with a given terminal. You send (the technical term is pipe, expressed by the | character) the output of the ps command to the grep utility which looks for patterns within the input. You code a single line, multipart command to obtain the list of processes associated with that particular terminal. Unix and Linux are well known for elegant solutions. In contrast the Windows solution to this information need is much more clumsy.
The grep utility has many other uses including validating e-mail addresses. Let’s say that your web site asks potential subscribers to furnish their e-mail accounts when signing up for a newsletter. A sophisticated but relatively short statement coded in grep could validate e-mail accounts.
Other Damn Small Linux text processing utilities include the related egrep and fgrep commands, mawk a pattern scanning and text processing language, sed an editor that handles large files, and diff a utility that compares files. DSL provides utilities that compress and archive files, and a wide range of other utilities. If you need them, these Linux utilities can be quite useful and time-saving.
Our next subject is Linux programming support.

Can you remember the 1992 Janet Jackson song entitled The Best Things In Life Are Free? You might even remember the 1956 Hollywood movie of the same name. In any case do not guarantee that you will find Damn Small Linux and our associated tutorials to be among the best things in your life. On the other hand we do guarantee that they are both completely free. Well, wait a minute. They are both free, but…

You may have to shell out some of your hard-earned cash to learn Linux. This is particularly true if you are downloading the software and running the tutorials on your home computer. Yes, you will have to pay for an Internet connection at least for the time spent downloading the files. By today’s bloated standards Damn Small Linux is really small; it weighs in at a mere 50 Megabytes. Downloading this software distribution is really quick, especially if you have a high-speed connection. And yet as we all know, sometime during the following month your Internet Service Provider will want money.

After downloading Damn Small Linux you won’t need the Internet to run it. But you may want to activate one or both of the Internet browsers that are part of the Damn Small Linux distribution. And you may want to download additional applications; there are lots of them. Because Damn Small Linux is so small you should still have scads of disk space available.

Your Damn Small Linux costs don’t end with the Internet. I would be surprised to learn that the electricity powering your computer is free. Surely the longer your days and nights spent in front of the computer the higher your light and heat bill. Furthermore, the more time you spend on Linux the more money you may end up spending on snacks, new eyeglasses, and taxis when you miss the bus to work because you just couldn’t tear yourself away from the computer in time. I think you get my drift. But we repeat. Damn Small Linux, this website, and many of the references on the web are free. Should you outgrow Damn Small Linux the larger versions of Linux are free, or at least quite inexpensive when compared to ostensibly similar versions of Microsoft Windows.

Most people don’t run operating systems in and of themselves but rather for the applications they enable. Reason number two: Damn Small Linux provides lots of free applications as discussed in our next article.

Let’s start by mentioning a few facts that can be very disconcerting to die-hard Linux and Unix fans. Serious computer viruses appeared first in Unix systems. And arguably the worst computer virus attack in history occurred on Unix systems about twenty years ago. The good news is that the lessons learned from this attack were integrated into the constantly evolving Unix and Linux systems. Of course, to some extent they have been integrated into protecting Windows systems, and that’s also good news.

One reason that Linux surpasses Windows for virus resistance is that Linux is open source. When an attack occurs hundreds or perhaps thousands of techies start working on solutions and post them to the Internet. You won’t have to wait for an anti-virus company to come up with something.

What other factors make Linux systems more virus resistant? For a virus to take effect it must be part of a running program. Simply opening an attachment in the Microsoft Windows environment does the trick. The last time (pun intended) I opened an electronic greeting card on my Windows computer I was rewarded with a nasty virus. It took quite some time to remove it even with the aid of technical support. Linux systems won’t launch the virus unless the user reads the email, saves the attachment, modifies the appropriate permission assigning execution permission to the attachment, and then explicitly executes the attachment. Unless all these steps happen the virus remains in quarantine. While an educated Linux user could carry out all these steps unleashing the virus this unhappy state of events doesn’t occur often in properly organized systems.

Another limits virus impact in the Linux world. Ordinary Linux users don’t have permission to do a lot. Even if they unleashed a virus it usually wouldn’t go very far. Getting beyond the individual computer requires administrative power – the kind held by Root Users in Linux and Administrators in Windows. Regular users of Linux are usually not accorded root permission. In contrast, a newly installed Windows system automatically creates the first user as an Administrator. In our mind this is asking for trouble.

Just think – a regular Windows user has permission to install files that can run amok and destroy lots of good things. It seems that in Windows the operating system, the applications, and the data are inextricably intertwined. As if they were asking for trouble.

I have read that bananas are in danger. It looks like biodiversity is a thing of the past in banana-land or at least in the commercial banana world. So there is some chance that one powerful banana virus will make banana splits a thing of the past. The very diversity of Linux systems offers some protection. And it’s a LAMP onto the world as discussed in the next two articles.

Damn Small Linux can be an ideal platform for supporting a wide range of programming languages. You can even program directly from the command line via a programming shell such as Bash. Major programming languages used in this environment include C, C++, and Java. If you are developing for the Internet you may want to use PHP, a web programming language and MySQL, a language for database system development. All these programming languages are also available in the Windows environment. So the question arises, why would you want to program under Linux rather than under Windows?
Many web developers and Internet service providers feel that Linux provides a more stable web site environment than does Windows. The most widely used web server, Apache, is available under both these operating systems but its new features, security enhancements, and bug fixes always are made available first on the Open Source (LAMP) version. And then they filter down to the Windows version. At the time of this writing the Windows version of Apache has problems with its cryptographic functions.
While programming languages are essentially the same across these two operating systems, their libraries are quite different. Basically, when you write complicated programs you want to make use of as much prewritten software as possible to reduce your programming and debugging effort. One example is handling the graphical user interface. As programmers often say, why reinvent the wheel? Linux provides a wider choice of libraries and graphical user interface toolkits.
When you program in Linux it is often fairly easy to port your programs to the Windows environment. Unfortunately, the inverse is rarely true. Of course as Linux systems become more popular, you will find more and more Windows-based programming systems that enable you to convert your programs to run under Linux. To do so makes clear economic sense.
Program conversion tools may be fairly difficult to develop. For example, executing programs must access the actual computer hardware. As you may imagine Linux and Windows programs access hardware quite differently. The modules that manage hardware access are called drivers. Linux drivers tend to be of higher quality than Windows drivers.
These two operating systems differ substantially in the way they manage programs during their execution. In other articles we discussed Linux’s increased security compared to Windows. We conclude this article by repeating a point that we have often made; you can run Damn Small Linux and its associated applications on very reduced hardware. You can do Linux, PHP, and MySQL development on old computers, ones that may have seemed ready for the garbage heap. In contrast many Windows competitors such as SQL Server Developer Edition require substantially more powerful computers, the kind of computers that people purchase for one or a few thousand dollars. When your programs will be used by dozens of people simultaneously, you will need powerful hardware. Don’t forget the operating system; can you guess which one we recommend? Our next subject is the graphical user interface.

Damn Small Linux is an excellent tool for learning Linux commands and running the Linux operating system. But what if you don’t plan to be a computer nerd; can this software still be useful? The answer is a definite yes; you can make use of this tiny operating system whether or not you want to learn the sometimes gruesome details of operating systems. This article introduces the text editors that come with your free Damn Small Linux that runs on even obsolete Windows computers. You can use these applications to compose simple text or programs of any level of complexity.
Once you have downloaded and installed Damn Small Linux there are several equivalent ways of launching its text editors. You can click on the DSL button in the lower-left hand corner or on the Apps icon toward the top of the screen. Then open the Editors: there are four, Beaver, Nano, Notepad, and vi (actually vim). We will look at these editors in order plus an additional one.
Beaver is my choice for creating and editing the text files used in my Damn Small Linux tutorials. The name Beaver stands for Beaver is an Early AdVanced EditoR which is the kind of joke that many Linux and Unix people find funny. This editor is particularly useful for programming and web page editing. Beaver’s special features include color coding and the ability to convert text to Upper Case, Lower Case or to capitalize the first letter of every word. You can convert text among the following formats: Unix, DOS, and Mac. Programmers will be glad to know that Beaver formats code for the following programming languages: C/C++, HTML, Perl, JavaScript, PHP, and Bash. Unfortunately there is no Help function.
The nano program is especially used for email messages. It stems from the widely used Pico email program that is not available for some versions of Linux. I have not worked with nano but am told that many Linux and Unix people like it.
What the Damn Small Linux people call Notepad is actually another text processor that is similar to the DOS/Windows Notepad. I haven’t used it because Beaver is more powerful, and just about as easy to use.
The final application in this group is VIM, vi IMproved. The original vi was a very-widely used text editor for Unix and Linux systems. Today almost all Unix and Linux people work with other, more sophisticated text editors. When I teach Linux on systems other than Damn Small Linux I teach a reduced version of vi. This editor is cumbersome, but you make like the improved version. Damn Small Linux offers you a choice.
The Office folder includes Ted, a word processor which is compatible with Microsoft Word. Ted saves documents in RTF (rich text format) that can be read by Microsoft Word and other word processors including Open Office. Ted and Beaver belong to different worlds; you can’t take documents back and forth between these two applications.

Linux people like to claim that directories are really just another type of file. This statement can be misleading. We saw in a previous article that you create a file using a file editor. We will see later in this article how to create a directory.

So just what is a Linux directory? A directory is a collection that may include one or more directories, one or more files, or in fact be empty. You may think of a directory as a computerized file folder or loose-leaf notebook that contains dividers (themselves directories) and pages (files.) Just like a notebook page may not contain a divider, a Linux file may not contain a directory.

Up to now our comments about Linux directories hold for Windows directories as well. Now let’s take a look at some differences between these two systems. First come the naming conventions. Linux always distinguishes between lower-case and upper-case characters in directory names. Microsoft Windows does not. For example, Linux treats pay12june and Pay12june are as two different directories, as different as the directories pay12june and heighho. These directory names were used as file names in the previous article. While Linux does have some reserved directory and file names, in general one cannot tell by the name whether it is a file name or a directory name. So be careful. Linux helps you out here ‘ the ls command that lists the contents of a given directory usually displays files and directories in different colors.

Directories are hierarchical. They resemble a tree or a family tree. But unlike a tree (or Microsoft Windows) Linux has only one root. The root, designated as / lies at the top, rather than at the bottom, of the hierarchy. Right underneath the root directory you will find several subdirectories. For example, the /home directory is a child of / the root directory. The number and names of the first-level subdirectories vary from one version of Linux to another. For example, some Linux distributions include a /root directory while others do not. The /root directory (or subdirectory, both terms are used) is a child of /, the actual root directory.

The /home directory is an important directory. It is divided into subdirectories, one for each user. We like to work with Damn Small Linux, a free version of Linux that runs on the Windows desktop and requires only 50 Megabytes of disk space. Damn Small Linux automatically creates a user called dsl whose home directory is /home/dsl ; a working area essentially reserved for this user. All Linux versions subdivide the /home directory into user subdirectories according to this simple naming convention.

Linux provides several commands to process directories. For example, the mkdir command creates a directory. The rmdir command removes a directory, but in the simplest case only when it is empty. The cd command changes the working directory, the directory in which you are positioned. The pwd (print working directory) command displays (not prints) the working directory. Beginners should run this command often to reduce errors. For example, if you, the dsl user, think that you are positioned in the /home/dsl directory but in fact are positioned in the / directory you won’t be able save your files with a simple command. Why? Because you lack the requisite permission, the subject of our next article.

Law enforcement recently has been following the general tide of government and public service groundswell by seeking computing solutions in the Linux direction. Particularly in law enforcement, their needs match well with open source software. They have to work lean on a taxpayer’s budget, and open source is free or low cost. They need top security, and Linux is still the highest-scoring operating software in official government assessments. They need mission-critical reliability, and Linux is so stable, it doesn’t just outrank the competition in stability – it makes the competition disappear!
Some recent examples of law enforcement agencies finding a solution in open source:
* Kent Police have lowered the cost of running their major criminal investigations system by a factor of 90% using Novell Linux Open Enterprise Server. The migration to Novell enabled Kent to scale up their Holmes II investigation system to work on larger projects with a broader scope – something they’d never been able to do before. They were also able to run it on their cheapest hardware they could find, thanks to Linux’s light requirements. A new policing operating system, named Genesis, is now being tested for scalability on Linux servers.
* Delivery of the first Linux systems to the West Yorkshire police force could see police forces throughout England and Wales unanimously switching to Linux desktops in a new pilot scheme. The deployment is taking place under a contract awarded by the UK Police IT Organization. If successful, it will lead to over 60,000 desktops deployed. In West Yorkshire alone, the installed base is around 3,500, and a spokesman reckoned that the savings from this would be around one million pounds per year!
* The New South Wales Police department is currently undertaking a major upgrade to its information infrastructure, made necessary due to the increasing volume of data handled by the force, and they’re switching to Linux systems to handle the load. Because the Linux systems are proving so reliable, they are looking forward to the higher capacity network more efficiently archiving and transmitting data stored as evidence, such as surveillance videos and audio material.
* Scottish police forces have also developed a Linux-based system for ensuring that they comply with the Freedom of Information Act legislation, an act which is intended to facilitate ‘open government’ by allowing the public to request access to government data. Since open source and open information go hand in hand, the system has scaled easily and saved tons of labor. The force doesn’t have to worry about proprietary media formats interfering with the public’s ability to access the data, and the efficiency of the Linux system allows a lot of manual tasks to be automated where they couldn’t before. The system is literally returning officers to the streets because it has saved everyone so much work.
* Police in the city of Munich have switched 14,000 of their department computers from Microsoft’s Windows operating system to Linux. The motivation for the decision was to make the government less dependent on one information technology supplier, and to save money while increasing capabilities. One technology analyst even compared the break-through migration to the fall of the Berlin wall, referring to the oppressive requirements of dealing with a proprietary software company’s agenda.
That government feels friendly with open source should come as no surprise. Traditionally, the Internet has been 80% Linux and Unix-based systems since its creation. The first Internet services were started and maintained by government providers, who used Unix system’s built-in multitasking features and excellent speed to create a fast, reliable network. Linux, a modern version of that Unix ideal, has already established itself as the leading system for server-room deployment, but now the effects are beginning to trickle down to the desktop user level and workstation deployments, where they are discovering that Linux systems have workspace-ready features built in which other commercial operating systems are just now beginning to discover and implement.
Furthermore, Linux systems come with the guarantee that because they are open source, no commercial company can restrict their usage in the future. A platform ported to Linux can stay on Linux, without support dying out and constant upgrades creating problems down the road.
Finally, the inherent security of the Unix computing model guarantees the effectiveness of Linux without the worries over security problems. Because there are in effect no viruses which can infect a Linux system known, and no critical security exploits found in the systems even by government security standards, departments are also considering Linux as a measure to protect our national data under concerns over national security and the terrorist threat in our modern times.

Of course if you are used to Microsoft Windows you are familiar with the concept of files. This familiarity means you won’t have to start from zero to learn about Linux files. However, you will have to relearn several concepts and techniques to work with files in the Linux environment, whether using Damn Small Linux or other versions. You can do several great things with Linux files that you can’t do easily or at all under Windows. This could be just one more reason to switch from Windows to Linux.

Files have unique names. This rule is not as simple as it may seem. There is no conflict between a hard disk file named pay12june and a file named pay12june on your removable USB flash drive. In fact, be sure to backup all your important files. Don’t worry if your hard drive file is erased or becomes corrupted and illegible, simply access the one on your flash drive. You could also have two files named pay12june on your hard drive in different directories. Directories, collections of directories and files, will be discussed in the next article in this series.

Linux distinguishes between lower-case and upper-case characters in file names. Microsoft Windows does not. For example, Linux treats pay12june and Pay12june as two different files, as different as pay12june and heighho. Windows users will have to adapt to this major difference. Even though I am a Linux fan I don’t see any advantage in the Linux way of naming files. Maybe I have spent too much time in the Windows environment.

File names should be relatively short. The allowed maximum is 255 characters but working with long file names is no fun and in fact is asking for trouble. Linux file names may not contain the character / which has a special meaning. To avoid misunderstanding don’t include special characters such as $ and & in your file names. Doing so could cause confusion and lead to hard-to-find errors. For the same reason don’t call your files by special Linux names such as etc.

Linux sometimes applies file extensions; common examples include .c to indicate a C-language program and .htm or .html to indicate one type of web page. Savvy Linux users often avoid coding the file extension but rely on the file directory to indicate the file type. Don’t give a Linux file a misleading file extension.

Use an editor to create or modify a text file. The old fashioned vi editor has been replaced by more powerful, user-friendly editors. Most versions of Linux come with several editors. Damn Small Linux, a popular version that runs under Windows, includes several editors such as Beaver that come quite close to being intuitive.

Linux provides an enormous variety of commands for processing files. Many of these commands are mnemonic; for example the command cp is used to copy files. Many commands include a wide variety of options. Consider the ls command, somewhat similar to the DIR command in the Windows environment. This seemingly simple command is quite rich and offers dozens and dozens of options many of which have no equivalent in the Windows environment.

Linux commands can be thought of as verbs. Just like most English sentences include more than a verb (go, jump) complete Linux commands contain the command itself and one or more objects. To copy a file you not only need to specify cp but also What and Where. For example, the command cp pay12june backuparea means copy the pay12june file into the backuparea directory.

Linux syntax (grammar rules) is quite strict and does take time to learn. But mastering Linux and associated technologies can lead to employment. The next step is mastering Linux directories.